Abstract

The association of trait mindfulness with emotional well-being has been found to be mediated by executive functioning. However, there is little empirical evidence on this process in adolescents. Therefore, this study tested these associations using an adolescent sample participating in a physical education yoga class. This study extended previous research by also including self-compassion and state mindfulness in addition to trait mindfulness. A prospective design employed a pilot yoga curriculum in a high school physical education class. Adolescents (N = 20) completed assessments of trait mindfulness and self-compassion at baseline, state mindfulness experienced during yoga classes over the 12 week physical education yoga class, and six indices of executive functioning and stress at the end of the 12 weeks. Path analysis was used to test the process model found by Short with the extensions of self-compassion and state mindfulness. Self-compassion directly predicted problems with activity level impulse control and indirectly predicted stress. When self-compassion did not predict specific executive functioning indicators, state mindfulness experienced in yoga predicted stress. This study contributes preliminary evidence that suggests further research into the unique effects of trait and state mindfulness as well as self-compassion on adolescent cognitive and affective outcomes. Results support the use of contemplative practices, such as yoga, in adolescent physical education as a strategy to boost emotion regulation processes.

Keywords

State Mindfulness, Physical Education, Psychological Resilience, Affect, Yoga,

References

  1. R.S. Lazarus, S. Folkman, (1984) Stress, appraisal, and coping, Springer Publishing Company, New York, NY.
  2. T.A. Murberg, E. Bru, School-related stress and psychosomatic symptoms among Norwegian adolescents, School Psychology International, 25 (2004) 317-332.
  3. Kechter, D.S. Black, (2018) Mindfulness meditation interventions with children and adolescents: Research findings and implications for social work practice In Integrative Body-Mind-Spirit Social Work An Empirically Based Approach to Assessment and Treatment (2nd Edition), Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
  4. Mak, K. Whittingham, R. Cunnington, R.N. Boyd, Efficacy of mindfulness-based interventions for attention and executive function in children and adolescents – a systematic review, Mindfulness, 9 (2018) 59- 78.
  5. C. Zenner, S. Herrnleben-Kurz, & H. Walach, Mindfulness-based interventions in schools: A systematic review and meta-analysis, Frontiers in Psychology, 5 (2014) 603.
  6. R.J. Davidson, J. Dunne, J.S. Eccles, A. Engle, M. Greenberg, M., P. Jennings, D. Vago, Contemplative practices and mental training: Prospects for American education. Child Development Perspectives, 6 (2012) 146-153.
  7. Scott R. Bishop Mark Lau Shauna Shapiro Linda Carlson Nicole D. Anderson James Carmody Zindel V. Segal Susan Abbey Michael Speca Drew Velting Gerald Devins Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11 (2006) 230-241.
  8. J. Kabat-Zinn (2005) Coming to our senses: Healing ourselves and the world through mindfulness, Hyperion, New York, NY.
  9. B. Isbel, & D. Mahar, Cognitive mechanisms of mindfulness: A test of current models, Consciousness and Cognition, 38 (2015) 50- 59.
  10. A. Chiesa, R. Calati, & A. Serretti, Does mindfulness training improve cognitive abilities? A systematic review of neuropsychological findings, Clinical Psychology Review, 31 (2011) 449-464.
  11. R. Teper, Z.V. Segal, & M. Inzlicht, Inside the mindful mind how mindfulness enhances emotion regulation through improvements in executive control, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22 (2013) 449-454.
  12. Y. Suchy, Executive functioning: Overview, assessment, and research issues for nonneuropsychologists, Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37 (2009) 106-116.
  13. M.M. Short, D. Mazmanian, K. Oinonen, & C.J. Mushquash, Executive function and selfregulation mediate dispositional mindfulness and well-being, Personality and Individual Differences, 93 (2016) 97-103.
  14. A. Kechter, D.S. Black, N.R. Riggs, C.M. Warren, A. Ritt-Olson, C-P. Chou, & M.A. Pentz, Factors in the Perceived Stress Scale Differentially Associate with Mindfulness Disposition and Executive Function among Early Adolescents, Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28 (2019) 814-821.
  15. K.W. Brown, & R.M. Ryan, The benefits of being present: The role of mindfulness in psychological well-being, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84 (2003) 822–848.
  16. L.G. Kirken, E.L. Garland, K. Bluth, O.S. Palsson, & S.A. Gaylord, From a state to a trait: Trajectories of state mindfulness in meditation during intervention predicts changes in trait mindfulness, Personality and Individual Differences, 81 (2015) 41-46.
  17. N. Weinstein, K.W. Brown, & R.M. Ryan, A multi-method examination of the effects of mindfulness on stress attribution, coping, and emotional well-being, Journal of Research in Personality, 43 (2009) 374-385.
  18. K.D. Neff, Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward oneself. Self and Identity, 2 (2003) 85- 102.
  19. K. Bluth, & P.W. Blanthon, The influence of self-compassion on emotional well-being among early and older adolescent males and females, Journal of Positive Psychology, 10 (2015) 219-230.
  20. R.A. Baer, E.L.B. Lykins, & J.R. Peters, Mindfulness and self-compassion as predictors of psychological well-being in long-term mediators and matched nonmediators, The Journal of Positive Psychology, 7 (2012) 230-238.
  21. N.T. Van Dam, S.C. Sheppard, J.P. Forsyth, & M. Earleywine, Self-compassion is a better predictor than mindfulness of symptom severity and quality of life in mixed anxiety and depression, Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25 (2011) 123–130.
  22. J. Meiklejohn, C. Phillips, M. L. Freedman, M. L. Griffin, G. Biegel, A. Roach, A. Saltzman, Integrating mindfulness training into K-12 education: Fostering the resilience of teachers and students, Mindfulness, 3 (2012) 291-307.
  23. R. W. Roeser, & C. Pinela, Mindfulness and compassion training in adolescence: A developmental contemplative science perspective, New Directions for Youth Development, 142 (2014) 9-30.
  24. K. Bluth, P.N.E. Roberson, S.A. Gaylord, K.R. Faurot, K.M. Grewen, S. Arzon, & S.S. Girdler, Does self-compassion protect adolescents from stress?, Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25 (2016) 1098-1109.
  25. K. D. Neff, & P. McGeehee, Self-compassion and psychological resilience among adolescents and young adults, Self and Identity, 9 (2010) 225-240.
  26. L. Cardaciotto, J.D. Herbert, E.M. Forman, E. Moitra, & V. Farrow, The assessment of present-moment awareness and acceptance: The Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale, Assessment, 15 (2008) 204-223.
  27. K. D. Neff, Development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion, Self and Identity, 2 (2003) 223-250.
  28. M. Cunha, A. Zavier, & P. Castilho, Understanding self-compassion in adolescents: Validation study of the selfcompassion scale, Personality and Individual Differences, 93 (2016) 56-62.
  29. K. D. Neff, I. Toth-Kiraly, L.M., Yarnell, K. Arimitsu, P. Castilho, N. Ghorbani & M. Mantzios, Examining the factor structure of the Self-Compassion Scale in 20 diverse samples: Support for use of a total score and six subscale scores, Mindfulness, 31 (2019) 27-45.
  30. S. Cohen, T. Kamarck, & R. Mermelstein, A global measure of perceived stress, Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24 (1983) 385- 396.
  31. D.C. Delis, (2012) Delis rating of executive functioning, Pearson, Bloomington, MN
  32. C.J. Ferguson, An effect size primer: A guide for clinicians and researchers, Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 40 (2012) 532–538.
  33. A.Cox, S. Ullrich-French, & B. French, Validity evidence for state mindfulness scale scores in a physical activity context, Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 20 (2016) 38-49.
  34. S. Ullrich-French, A.E. Cox, A.N. Cole, B.R. Cooper, & C. Gotch, Initial validity evidence for the State Mindfulness Scale for Physical Activity with youth, Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science, 21 (2017) 177-189.
  35. A.F. Hayes, & K.J. Preacher, Statistical mediation analysis with a multicategorical independent variable, British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 67 (2014) 451- 470.
  36. R.B. Kline, (2005) Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling (2nd Edition), The Guilford Press, New York.
  37. D.M. Tice, E. Bratslavsky, & R.F. Baumeister, Emotional distress regulation takes precedence over impulse control: If You Feel Bad, Do It!, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80 (2001) 53-67.
  38. E. Visted, J. Völlestad, M.B. Nielsen, & G.H. Nielsen, The impact of group-based mindfulness training on self-reported mindfulness: A systematic review and metaanalysis, Mindfulness, 6 (2015) 501-522.
  39. W. Kuyken, K. Weare, O. Ukoumunne, R. Vicary, N. Motton, R. Burnette, F. Huppert, Effectiveness of the Mindfulness in Schools Programme: Non-randomised controlled feasibility study, British Journal of Psychiatry, 203, (2013) 126–131.
  40. D.P. MacKinnon, A.J. Fairchild, & M.S. Fritz, Mediation analysis, Annual Review of Psychology, 58 (2007) 593-614.